The art of clear reasoning
A field guide to the ways arguments go wrong and minds mislead themselves: 71 logical fallacies and 131 cognitive biases, each with a short description, an example, related ideas and references.
Logical fallacies · 71
A logical fallacy is a flaw in an argument: the reasoning does not support the conclusion, however convincing it sounds.
Most common first:
- Ad hominemAttacking the person or the source
- Straw manDodging or distorting the argument
- WhataboutismDodging or distorting the argument
- Appeal to emotionFeelings, crowds and authority standing in for evidence
- Appeal to authorityFeelings, crowds and authority standing in for evidence
- Appeal to popularityFeelings, crowds and authority standing in for evidence
Cognitive biases · 131
A cognitive bias is a systematic pattern in how we perceive, remember and judge: a mental shortcut that usually works and sometimes misleads.
Most common first:
Classic lists
The biases are also available in the order of the famous catalogues they come from.
How to use this section
- When an analysis of a document names a fallacy or bias, the name links here; open it to see what it means and how it relates to others.
- Fallacies are flaws in an argument; biases are patterns in how we think. They overlap: confirmation bias often produces cherry picking, and the bandwagon fallacy rides on social proof. Each page lists related entries and says why.
- Order: entries are listed from most to least common in everyday arguments, decisions and media. That ordering is an editorial judgment, not a measured statistic.
- Spotting a fallacy in someone's argument shows that the argument is weak, not that its conclusion is false (the fallacy fallacy). And spotting biases in others is easier than in ourselves (the bias blind spot).